P u b l i c a t i o n s
Research Papers
Evidence-based research advancing fire safety knowledge and practice
Reporting of fire deaths or serious incidents in the UK where emollients are recorded to be a contributing factor.
Results from a freedom of information request found that 24 out of 52 UK fire and rescue services noted details of emollients and skin creams on their incident reports. This revealed that 78 deaths and 6 serious incidents between 2015 to 2022 had been recorded with emollients as a contributing factor to the acceleration of fire - double the number than previously reported. The research also suggests problems with recording and awareness and comparisons to the government fire data could indicate 22% of fire deaths in GB involving ignition of clothing/textile could have contained emollient residues.
Research Paper | September 2025
The fire behaviour of fabrics containing dried emollient residues
Extensive flammability testing was carried out on 14 different emollients including paraffin free products (vegetable/nut oil-based) dried on fabrics. These were tested on several cotton fabrics and a polycotton mix fabric used for bedding using only 1.25 ml of emollient. The fabrics all ignited much quicker and the flame speed increased as did the flame height with an emollient present. Therefore, the paper underpins previous research of the potential of fabrics to ignite quicker, burn quicker and more intensely with an emollient residue impacting on someone's reaction time.
Research Paper | March 2025
The potential fire risk of emollients when dried-on viscose bandages
Flammability tests comparing nine different emollients revealed that the same safety advice provided for clothing and bedding- also applies to bandages. The study found that the same transfer occurs from skin onto bandages and increased the flammability of the bandage once the emollient had dried onto it. This included both paraffin-based and paraffin-free emollients.
Research Paper | Febuary 2023
Assessing the potential fire risk of laundered fabrics after contamination with emollients using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and chemometrics
This was research exploring if emollients are removed during normal domestic washing at 30, 40 and 60oC. Cotton sheeting with on application of dried on paraffin-based lotion, cream and ointment as well as a paraffin free (containing nut oils) lotion were tested. The majority of the lotions were removed at all temperatures, but some residues remained and the cream and ointment were not removed even at higher temperatures. Therefore, the fire risk of emollients still remains after washing fabrics and an additional risk is introduced, where the ointment transferred onto clean fabrics in the wash and contaminated the drum.
Research Paper | November 2021
Evaluating the communication within fire andrescue services and the NHS on the fire risk of emollients in accordance of the MHRA safety update
Following 50 fatal fires being linked to emollient use in 2018, the communication about their danger was investigated. The communication to the public, between fire services and with healthcare professionals were all determined to require an improved safety campaign, a national approach and improved education. As a result of a result of this lack of communication- 63% of fire services, 32% of commissioning groups, and 72% of local health boards provided no safety guidance. Even less provided information that was up to date with current developments in the field.
Research Paper | April 2021
The flammability of textiles when contaminated with paraffin base product
The flammability of paraffin-based products was tested on fabrics. This was done by keeping the flame at a slight distance opposed to directly lighting the fabric on fire. It was found that paraffin-contaminated products would set alight much faster (were more flammable). While it took 100% cotton roughly 68 seconds to set alight, if it had a paraffin product on it, that time reduced to approximately 6 seconds. Further tests were done on polyester-cotton sheets, and it was found that if the sheet was contaminated with paraffin product it would “glow” (stay alight) for almost double the time. This study shows that paraffin-based products give someone a lot less time to react, as well as causing a much more violent fire increasing the likelihood of severe burns.